1) parties with
"the"
A
vast majority of political parties in English-speaking countries have the word
"party" in their name:
Partia
Demokratyczna, Republikańska, Pracy, Konserwatywna
the Democratic, Republican, Labor,
Conservative Party
Polish
party names, on the other hand, are a bit more varied, but many include an
equivalent "core word" describing the institution as a
"party," "movement," etc. The names of all such parties
require the use of "the." Note that this use of "the"
carries over to the Polish abbreviations used in English:
Sojusz Lewicy Demokratycznej
the
Democratic Left Alliance
→ the SLD
Liga
Polskich Rodzin
the League
of Polish Families → the LPR
Ruch
Odbudowy Polski
the Movement
for the Reconstruction of Poland
→ the ROP
Unia
Wolności
the Freedom
Union → the UW
Unia Pracy
the Union of Labor → the UP
(NOT: the Labor Union, due to the confusion
with "związek zawodowy")
Zjednoczenie Chrześcijańsko-Narodowe
the Christian-National Union
→ the ZChN
Platforma Obywatelska
the Civic Platform → the
PO
The Polish
word stronnictwo is usually likewise translated as "party":
Polskie Stronnictwo Ludowe
Polish
Peasant Party → the PSL
(also known as: Polish Peasants' Party, Polish
People's Party)
Stronnictwo
Konserwatywno-Ludowe
Conservative Peasant Party → the
SKL
“ludowy” is perhaps best translated as
"people's" or "agrarian" but likely for historical reasons
these parties are widely known in English as "peasant" parties
(despite the odd, feudal connotations "peasant" has in contemporary
English).
Although "platform" is not a
common name for a party in English, I recommend considering
"platform" to be a "core word" like "party,"
"union," etc. (although practice in this regard varies somewhat in
the English-language press). This means I suggest using "the" both in
translation and with the Polish abbreviation PO:
Platforma Obywatelska
the Civic Platform → the
PO
Words such as lewica, prawica, demokracja
are commonly used as the basis for party names in Polish, but such names are
also somewhat unnatural in English. Still, such words are best treated as
"core words" equivalent to "party" and therefore require
the use of "the" both in translation and with Polish abbreviations:
Lewica i Demokraci
the Left
and Democrats → the LiD
Socjaldemokracja Polska
the Social
Democracy of Poland
→ the SDPL
Prawica Rzeczypospolitej
the Right
of the Republic → the PR
The Polish party called the "Democratic
Party" also goes by its official name demokraci.pl, which can be
used in English directly (without "the").
2) parties
without "the"
When a
party name lacks a word such as "party" or its equivalent, it is best
used without "the" in English. This, too, of course carries over to
the use of the respective abbreviations. The name of Prawo i Sprawiedliwość is
perhaps the most problematic case. Since its full name is "Law and
Justice," without any "party" word, it should grammatically not
require the use of "the," as follows:
Prawo i
Sprawiedliwość
Law and
Justice → PIS
NOT: the Law and Justice, the PiS
possibly: the
Law and Justice party
(NOT: the Law and Justice Party)
Nevertheless,
English-language publications are by and large inconsistent in their use of
"the" with Law and Justice / PiS:
Mr Gudzowaty, Poland's
fifth-richest man, has not explained how they got out. Some think he is
currying favour with the powers-that-be: Law and Justice, the
centre-right party founded by Lech Kaczynski
(president) and his twin brother Jaroslaw (prime minister).
Controversies surrounding the
express pace of the amendments to the media law, which was already passed by
the Sejm and was yesterday discussed by the Senate, continue as the Law and
Justice is aiming at total authority over the media.
The PiS, which, with the support of the League of Polish Families (LPR) and
Samoobrona, formed a minority government led by Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz in
November, is critical of the draft.
The State Election Commission (PKW)
rejected the financial statements of two parties in parliament, the ruling Law
and Justice (PiS) and the opposition Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), in early August. As a result,
the two parties may lose government subsidies in the next three years. For
PiS, the possible loss would come to over zl.65 million, and the SLD may
lose zl.35 million.
This is
most likely because
"Law and Justice" is slightly awkward as a party name in English, and
using "the" (especially with the abbreviation "PiS") may
make it seem more natural. Nonetheless, under the rule for article use with
abbreviations (which generally corresponds to article use when the abbreviation
is expanded), "the PiS" is incorrect.
Many authors circumvent this problem by tacking
on the word "party" (correctly without a capital letter, with
"the") to conform better to the conventions of party names in
English. This is correct provided that the word "party" is not
capitalized as part of the proper name:
Poland’s governing Law and
Justice party has decided to push for early elections amid strife with its
two coalition partners.
Another
problematic case arises with the name "Samoobrona":
Samoobrona
Self-Defense
NOT: the Self-Defense
possibly: the
Self-Defense party (NOT: Party)
This name contains no "party" word,
and so is used without "the". As concerns the abbreviation, many
English sources use the full name "Self-Defense" (US) /
"Self-Defence" (UK)
rather than the abbreviation ("SO", NOT: "the SO"),
possibly because the abbreviation is less common in Polish as well. Other
English sources leave the name untranslated, writing Samoobrona in
English (see Warsaw Voice text cited above).
Also, like in the case of PiS, some authors
tack on "party" (thus requiring the use of "the"):
Leaders of the rural-based
Self-Defense party decided to remain in the government a day after Kaczynski
fired its leader, Andrzej Lepper, as agriculture minister and deputy prime
minister.
Another
Polish political entity whose name lacks a "party" equivalent word
is:
Akcja
Wyborcza Solidarność
Solidarity
Electoral Action → AWS
NOT: the AWS
AWS is witnessing a fierce internal struggle
between the Christian-national and economic conservative wings.
koalicji
AWS The AWS coalition
The
names of parties from other countries follow a similar scheme if they lack the
word "party" or its equivalent:
Jedna Rosja (Единая Россия)
United Russia
NOT: the
United Russia
possibly: the United Russia party (NOT: Party)
Jabłoko (Яблоко)
Yabloko
NOT: the
Yabloko
Nasza
Ukraina (Наша Україна)
Our Ukraine
NOT: the
Our Ukraine
3) constructions that
affect the use of "the"
Notice that
like any nouns in English, when party names or abbreviations are used in an adjectival
sense, the above rules for the use of "the" no longer hold: as an
adjective, a party name is stripped of "the," the use of
"the" then hinging on the main noun phrase. Sometimes the main noun
requires no article (plurals, uncoutable singulars):
liderzy SLD
the SLD's
leaders
but: SLD leaders ("liderzy SLD-owcy")
to jest
sprzeczne z obecną polityką LPR
to the LPR's policy
but: runs counter to LPR policy ("z polityką LPR-owską")
Sometimes a countable noun may require
"a":
eurodepytowany
PO Jacek Saryusz-Wolski
Jacek
Saryusz-Wolski, a Euro-MP with the Civic Platform (PO),
but:
Jacek Saryusz-Wolski, a Civic Platform (PO) Euro-MP,
And sometimes "the" is required by
the noun:
rząd PiS-owski
the PiS government
gabinet SLD
the SLD cabinet
lider Samoobrony
the Self-Defense leader
When
a party name is used as a noun but further qualified by an adjective, the use
of "the" becomes obligatory, regardless of the above rules:
rządzące PiS
the ruling PiS
radykalna
Samoobrona
the radical
Self-Defense
prawicowa AWS
the
right-wing AWS
80 proc. Polaków
jest zadowolonych z faktu, że jesteśmy w Unii, a jednocześnie eurosceptyczne
PiS ma ciągle wysokie poparcie.
Eighty percent of
Poles are pleased that we joined the EU, yet at the same time the Euro-skeptic
PiS continues to enjoy broad support.
The
interaction of all these rules is exemplified by the following passage:
The prime minister, Jaroslaw Kaczynski, the
leader of the conservative Law and Justice (PiS) party removed all ministers
belonging to Self-Defence and the Catholic-nationalist League of Polish
Families (LPR), replacing them with PiS loyalists and non-party experts.
Quiz on first reading assignment
1
Wybryki polskich polityków mogą spowodować niską frekwencję.
The antics of Poland's politicians may not
encourage high voter turn-out.
2 The coalition's demise was long-drawn-out.
Upadek
koalicji wlókł się w nieskończoność. (Koalicja
umierała długo)
3 Kaczyński started the ball rolling by sacking
Lepper, implicated in a bribery scandal.
Kaczyński
dał (temu) początek / zaczął całą sprawę poprzez odwołanie Leppera,
zamieszanego w aferę korupcyjną.
4
Niezawisłość wymiaru sprawiedliwości została nadszarpnięta.
The
independence/autonomy of
the
judiciary / the judicial system / the justice system
has been undermined.
Wymiar
sprawiedliwości = władza sądownicza
the
judicial branch
Władza wykonawcza
the
executive branch, the executive
Władza
ustawodawcza
The legislative branch
„Czwarta
władza”?
"The
fourth estate" (euphemism for the media)
5
Większość dwóch trzecich posłów jest potrzebna, aby rozwiązać parlament.
A
two-thirds majority
A
majority of two-thirds of MPs (parliamentary deputies) is needed to dissolve
parliament
6 The party was been revamped by a former president
and has a media-savvy
leader.
Partia została
(gruntownie/kompleksowo) zreorganizowana/przebudowana przez
byłego
prezydenta i ma lidera, który dobrze się zna na mediach.
savvy
(journalistic slang)
Adjective:
media-savvy politicians
computer-savvy (web-savvy, Internet-savvy) students
Noun:
He has business savvy / political savvy.
A lot will depend on the new prime minister’s
political savvy.
7 Po odrzuceniu nowej
ustawy lustracyjnej, partia zaczęła zbierać brudy/haki na sedziów i dążyć do
wyborów.
After rejecting the vetting law….
(with this structure, the party is doing the rejecting)
After the rejection of the vetting law…
After the vetting law was rejected…
(with these structures, we are not saying who is doing the rejecting)
… the party began to gather compromising
materials/information on/against the judges and to push/press for elections.
1. Koalicja się rozpadła. Z powodu chaosu,
prezydent rozpisał nowe wybory. Sondaże nie dają żadnej z partii wyraźnej
przewagi.
The
coalition has collapsed. The president has
called new elections owing to the chaos. According to the polls, no political
party has a clear lead.
2. Przemysłowe Centrum Optyki w Warszawie chce,
by odpowiedzialny za porozumienia offsetowe minister obrony skłonił włoską
firmę Oto Melara do wywiązania się z umów.
The PCO in Warsaw
would like the minister of defence (the defence minister), (who is) responsible
for the offset agreements, to put pressure on the Italian company Oto Melara to
fulfil its duties/obligations / perform the contracts.
(commas because there is only one defence minister)
3. Znałem kilka osób, które studiowały ekonomię
na uniwersytecie. Sam o tym pomyślałem, w końcu jednak doszedłem do wniosku, że
polityka jest dla mnie bardziej interesująca niż sprawy ściśle gospodarcze.
I knew several people who had studied economics at the
university. Personally I considered doing so / gave that some thought but
finally I came to the conclusion that politics interests me more than strictly
economic issues
4. Wszyscy wysocy rangą oficerowie, którzy
ukończyli akademie w byłym ZSRR, mogą stracić pracę. Według informatorów
"Rz" z tego właśnie powodu musiało odejść co najmniej czterech
generałów.
All high-ranking officers who graduated from military
universities in the Soviet Union may/could be
dismissed. According to Rzeczpospolita's informants/sources at least four
generals were forced to resign.
5. Kowalczyk należy do najbogatszych posłów w
obecnym Sejmie. Jednak w porównaniu z członkami poprzedniego rządu, jego
majątek nie jest duży.
Kowalczyk is one of the wealthiest/most well-off/most
affluent MPs in the Sejm. However, in comparison to members of the former
government his wealth is not impressive.
(upper/lower
chamber)
6. Czy mogę zadać pytanie? Jak będzie "klub
parlamentarny" po angielsku?
Could/may I ask a question? How do you say
"kp" in English? / What is the English for "kp"?
NOT: How is "kp" in English?
7. Informacje w internecie okazały się być wiarygodnymi
- całą aferę opisał później "Dziennik".
The information on the Internet proved to be credible
/ reliable. The whole scandal was later described by the newspaper
Dziennik / the Dziennik daily.
8. Stosunki polsko-niemieckie mogą się poprawić.
Zależy to m.in. od tego, czy Niemcy zrezygnują z roszczeń do nieruchomości.
Polish-German relations may improve. Among other
factors, this depends on / hinges upon whether Germans abandon their (real
estate) property claims.
(This depends, inter alia, upon whether...)
9. W razie konieczności, wiceprezes partii może
wystąpić do prezesa o zgodę, aby wykluczyć konkretnego członka z partii.
If necessary, the deputy chairman / chief / leader of
the party may ask for the chairman's approval to expel a certain party member.
10. Eksperci oceniają, że wzrost
gospodarczy wyniesie w tym roku 5%, co pozwoli zredukować deficyt budżetowy do
30 miliardów. Rząd zachęca do inwestowania. – Wtedy dynamika będzie jeszcze
większa – uzasadniał premier.
According to experts,
NOT: Experts assess that...
Experts reckon / predict / assume that....
Experts expect economic growth to be / come to 5 per
cent (percent US)
this year, which will enable the budget deficit to be reduced to 30 billion.
The government is encouraging/promoting investments. "Then the tempo/pace
(of growth) will be even greater", the prime minister said/explained.
11. Media informowały, że żądał ogromnej
łapówki. Rywin jednak zaprzecza. Do dziś to jest właściwie wszystko, co można
powiedzieć o tej sprawie.
The media informed the public
The media reported / stated / announced
that he had demanded a huge bribe. Yet Rywin denies
everything. To date, that is actually all that can be said in this regard.
12. Romaszewski powiedział, że Polskę czeka
wiele pracy by zbudować kraj, gdzie wszyscy obywatele będą korzystali z
wolności. Senator odpierał także zarzuty podnoszone przez niektórych działaczy
opozycji, że premier Jarosław Kaczyński nie był aktywnym działaczem opozycji
antykomunistycznej.
Romaszewski said that (idioms)
...much / a great deal must be done in Poland...
...Poland
faces a great deal of work...
...there is a great deal of work ahead for Poland...
...to create a country where all citizens can exercise
their right to liberty. The senator also refuted allegations raised by other
opposition activists / politicians that Prime Minister Jarosław Kaczyński had
not been an active in the anti-communist opposition.
Sustaining a formal register
Many political texts sustain a high degree of formality in Polish. This is done either by special word choice:
aczkolwiek, jednakże, gdyż...
through the avoidance of informal expressions, and through the use of formal or even literary collocations.
The same effect can and should be achieved in English by following these rules:
Rule 1: contractions
Don’t – do not Can’t – cannot, can not Won’t – will not
(rule of thumb: in written translation, only use contractions within “quoted” statements, to stress the conversational style)
Rule 2: -one/-body
Anybody, somebody, nobody More formal: Anyone, someone, no one
(rule of thumb: in written translation, only use anyone, someone, no one)
Rule 3: get
(rule of thumb: try to use a construction without “get”)
dostać,
otrzymać
get
obtain, receive
poprawić się
get better
grow/become
better
improve
pogorszyć
się
get worse
become
worse,
worsen
deteriorate,
take a turn
for the worse
(escalate a
crisis)
pogorszyć
make worse
exacerbate
the situation
escalate a
crisis
zmniejszyć
się
get smaller
become smaller
decline
decrease
be on the
decline
diminish
recede
(threat)
dwindle
(hope, prospect)
(zlecić
zadanie komuś)
get
something done
have
something done
przyzwyczaić
się
get used to
become /
grow accustomed to
pozbyć się
get rid of
dispose of
Rule 4: informal words to avoid in writing:
big, little a bit till…
Rule 5: “neutral” words can sometimes be made “more formal”
Make/render something X
("render
services…." = świadczyć usługi)
But
"make/render something X" is especially useful for translating Polish
verbs: “unie....ić”:
unieszkodliwić
make/render
something harmless (neutralize)
uniemożliwić
make/render
something impossible (prevent, preclude)
unieruchomić
make/render
inactive/immobile (immobilize)
uniezależnić
make/render
(more) independent / (less) dependent
unieważnić
make/to
render invalid (invalidate)
Titles + Names
A. Together or separate?
In Polish,
titles/explanations often get "squeezed together" with names, i.e.
with a lot of information appearing right before a person's name (without any
commas):
prezes
i dyrektor generalny firmy Novell Ron
Hovsepian
były
minister spraw zagranicznych prof. Władysław Bartoszewski
Prezes
Polskiej Agencji Rozwoju Przedsiębiorczości Mirosław Marek
prawdopodobny
zwycięzca wyborów prezydenckich Nicolas Sarkozy
przewodniczący
i główny sponsor Światowego Kongresu Żydowskiego (WJC) Edgar Bronfman
szef
Dowództwa Operacyjnego gen. Henryk Tacik i szef
sztabu Wojsk Lądowych gen. Zbigniew Cieślik
Such information often
has to be "broken up" and reorganized in English, in line with one of
the following three scenarios:
|
Strategy 1
use a title combined directly with the name:
· title/explanation right
before name,
· without any initial
"the,"
· no commas,
· if using an official
title, capitalize the "important" words
PPO
President Tomasz Czajkowski
President
Lech Kaczynski
Microsoft Chairman
Bill Gates
Microsoft CEO Steve Balmer
Professor Henryk Samsonowicz
ZUS President Stanisław Alot
ZUS head Stanisław Alot
WRONG: the
Polish president Lech Kaczynski
WRONG: the president
Lech Kaczynski
WRONG: the
Microsoft chairman Bill Gates
WRONG: ZUS Head
Stanisław Alot ("head" is
an explanation, not an official title like "president," so no capitalization)
|
This solution is
especially recommended when the title is relatively short and
"light." It works best when the title:
· includes a small number of
words and contains no prepositional phrases (of, for, etc.)
· company or institution names
are short, used "adjectivally" ("Microsoft CEO" rather than
"Microsoft's CEO"), or perhaps as abbreviations ("PPO
President").
Note that the latter
two rules are sometimes bent in English, when a person's full official title is
more complex:
President of Poland Lech
Kaczyński
Professor of History Henryk
Samsonowicz
EU Commissioner for
External Relations and the European Neighbourhood Policy Benita Ferrero-Waldner
However, for clarity's
sake such cases are best broken up into two pieces following Strategy 2 or 3
below, or abbreviated to better conform with the above rules:
Polish President Lech Kaczyński
history expert
Professor Henryk Samsonowicz
EU External Relations
Commissioner Benita Ferrero-Waldner
When dealing with
longer official titles, or more explanatory information about who a person is
(the distinction between an official "title" and a more wordy
explanation is of course not always easy to make), in English the most natural
solution is to divide the information up into two "pieces": the name
+ title/explanation.
Which of these two
pieces of information should come first? That depends on the context and what
the reader is expected to already know or find pertinent. But keep in mind that
often the order in English will be the reverse of that found in Polish: Polish
tends to provide the more important information last, English first.
|
Strategy 2
use the title or explanation, followed by the name as "extra
information"
· title with initial "the"
if necessary,
· no capital letters unless
extra "politeness" intended
· set the name off with
commas as "extra information"
the president of Poland, Lech Kaczynski,
the chairman of
Microsoft, Bill Gates,
the president of the
PPO, Tomasz Czajkowski,
|
This option is
appropriate when the reader is not considered likely to recognize the name of
the individual in question, or when the position held by the person is most
pertinent to the discussion.
|
Strategy 3
(The reverse of Strategy 2)
use the name followed by the official or explanatory title as
"extra information":
· no capital letters on
title unless extra "politeness" intended
· set the title/explanation
off with commas as "extra information"
· an initial "title
article" (the/a) is optional in this construction
Tomasz Czajkowski, [the] president of the PPO,
Bill Gates, [the] chairman of Microsoft,
Lech Kaczynski, [the] president of Poland,
Jacek Kowalski, [a] member of the Polsat management board,
Henryk Samsonowicz,
[a] professor of history,
Benita Ferrero-Waldner, EU Commissioner for External Relations and the European Neighbourhood Policy,
|
This solution is
especially appropriate when the title is lengthy or particularly explanatory in
nature (as in "a member of the Polsat management board").
Notice how in the
special case of Strategy 3, any initial article ("the" or
"a") in a postposed
title may be omitted. In fact, assuming that there is no problem with clarity,
omitting this article is generally recommended for simplicity's sake.
B. "Title
Articles"
The omission of
articles "the"/"a" in postposed titles, as illustrated above, can be a useful trick for getting out of
a tight bind sometimes caused by the ambiguity of Polish with its absence of
articles. Consider the following example:
zastępca redaktora
"Polityki" Jan Szmidt
Is Mr. Szmidt "a deputy editor-in-chief"? (jednym
z zastępców redaktora?)
or "the deputy editor-in-chief" (jedynym
zastępcą redaktora?). The original Polish in such a context does not provide enough
information to successfully decide upon the correct translation. The
Polish-English translator is often forced to seek outside information to
resolve such dilemmas. Yet a good trick is to omit the "title article"
in this construction and to leave the question unsettled:
Jan Szmidt, deputy editor-in-chief of Polityka
C. Ministers
When dealing with
ministers, often there is a longer official title as well as an
"abbreviated official title":
"abbreviated
official title" (strategy 1)
Foreign Minister Anna Fotyga
long title (strategy
2/3)
the Polish Minister of
Foreign Affairs, Anna Fotyga,
Anna Fotyga, Minister of Foreign Affairs,
(Note that
"polite" capitalization is often used with ministers, like with presidents
and prime ministers.)
D. Parallel
Structure
When there is a long
list of individuals + titles, things can easily become confusing if one
switches strategies in the middle of the list. Strategies 2 & 3 should not
be mixed at all. Strategy 1 can be cautiously mixed with one of the other two,
although it is best to render all the titles in one style.
W
uroczystej inauguracji uczestniczyli m.in. minister transportu Jerzy Polaczek,
Maciej Rodak, Prezes Polskiej Agencji Żeglugi Powietrznej (PAŻP) i Grzegorz
Kruszyński, Prezes Urzędu Lotnictwa Cywilnego.
Puls Biznesu
GOOD: The ceremony was
attended by Transport Minister Jerzy
Polaczek, Maciej Rodak, president of the Polish Air Navigation Services Agency (PAZP), and Grzegorz
Kruszynski, president of the Civil Aviation Office, among others.
(began with Strategy 1, continued with Strategy 3)
BETTER: The ceremony
was attended by Jerzy Polaczek, minister of transport, Maciej
Rodak, president of the Polish Air Navigation Services Agency (PAZP), and Grzegorz
Kruszynski, president of the Civil Aviation Office, among others.
(used Strategy 3
throughout)
Typical mistakes from previous quiz:
The president Kaczynski has to rule the country
despite the PiS’s diminished political clout.
What's wrong here? Well, two things:
President Kaczynski The president,
Kaczyński,
...despite PiS’s diminished political clout.
...despite the diminished PiS political clout.
prawicowy,
lewicowy the left wing, the right wing, the left, the right
left-wing politicians, leftist politicians,
left-leaning politicians, centrist, middle-of-the-road
prawo
gwarantowane w konstytucji constitutional right,
right guaranteed in the Constitution, a right enshrined in the Constitution
(collocations: rights, value, memory of something)
OXFORD PWN: enshrine –
chronić [rights]; czcić, ot|oczyć, -aczać czcią [memory]; these principles are
enshrined in the constitution zasady te zapisane są w konstytucji; enshrined in
law/tradition uświęcony prawem/tradycją
obejść
colloquial: get around, find a way around something, more
formal: avoid, most formal: circumvent
(don't confuse: contravene/circumvent,
contravention/circumvention)
głowa
głowa państwa – head of state, (usually) president
głowa rządu, szef rządu – head of government,
(usually) prime minister
wykluczyć
NOT: exclude
rule out (the possibility/ option) that…, rule out the
possibility of doing something
Nie jest wykluczone … - It is not out of the question
that…, It is possible that
FORMAL / INFORMAL EQUIVALENTS
Polish
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informal
English to avoid:
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neutral
|
more
formal
|
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nieco
|
a bit, a little
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slightly
|
somewhat
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do
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till
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until
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duży
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big
(huge)
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large
great
vast
major
substantial
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mały
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little
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small
slight
minor
insignificant
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(bardzo) dużo
|
a lot of
lots of
heaps of
|
a great amount (number) of
numerous
|
a great deal of
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kilka
|
a couple of
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some, a few,
several
|
|
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dość (interesujące)
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pretty (interesting)
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rather, quite
fairly
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|
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taki jak X
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like X
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such as
for instance
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cały czas
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all the time
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continuously
constantly
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continually
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bardzo (nienawidzić kogoś)
|
(hate sb) a lot
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very much
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a great deal
|
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bardzo (skomplikowane)
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really (complicated)
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very, extremely
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exceptionally
highly
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w zasadzie
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basically
actually
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in general
in essence
essentially
practically
in effect
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Polish
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neutral English
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more formal / creative
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very formal / literary / old fashioned
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NEGATIVE
CONSTRUCTIONS
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nie robić czegoś
|
do not do something
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fail to do
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refrain from
abstain from
omit to do
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|
przestać
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stop doing something
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cease to do
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desist from doing
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nie mieć czegoś
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not have something
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lack something
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be devoid of
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CONNECTIVES
/ PREPOSITIONS:
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jednak
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however
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nevertheless
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nonetheless
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także
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too/also
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likewise
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---
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(na)
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on
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upon
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wśród, pośrod
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among
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amid
|
amongst
amidst
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więc
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so, therefore
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consequently
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thus
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podczas
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while
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whilst
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przed
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before
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prior to
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on the eve of
(ere)
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po (w następstwie)
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after
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subsequently
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in the wake of
in the aftermath of
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w efekcie
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as a result
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consequently
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obok
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next to
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adjacent to
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bez czyjeś wiedzy
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unknown to someone
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unbeknown to
|
unbeknownst to
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OTHER
VOCABULARY
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(być) może
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maybe
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perhaps
possibly
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zależy od
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depends on
|
depends upon
|
hinges upon
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od początku
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from the beginning
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from the outset
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advent,
from something's inception
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przyznać
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admit
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concede
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czynić (coś jakimś)
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make (something safe)
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render
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pomysł
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idea
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notion
concept
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choć (aczkolwiek)
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though
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although
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albeit
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(na)
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on
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upon
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rozumieć
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understand
|
comprehend
grasp
appreciate
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uderzyć
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hit
|
strike
deal a blow to
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zmienić
|
change
|
alter, amend
modify, reform
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ograniczyć
|
limit, reduce
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constrain, cap,
curb
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skończyć
|
finish
stop
|
conclude
put an end to
bring to an end
|
|
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około 500
|
about / around 500
roughly 500
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approx.
circa (1980)
|
|
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móc coś robić
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be able to do something
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be in a position to
capable of
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|
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zawsze
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always
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invariably
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ilość
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amount
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quantity
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|
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szybko / szybki
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quick(ly), fast
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rapidly, swiftly
promptly
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forthwith
expediently
|
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zacząć
|
begin
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commence
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lepszy niż
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better than
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superior to
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dosyć
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enough
|
sufficient
adequate
ample
|
|
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wszechobecny, powszechny
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present everywhere
|
prevalent
|
ubiquitous (omnipresent)
|
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ustalić (fakt)
|
find out
|
ascertain
|
|
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coraz więcej
|
more and more
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increasing(ly)
|
ever more
|
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coraz mniej
|
less and less
|
decreasing(ly)
|
ever fewer
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oznaczyć
|
mean
|
entail
|
|
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teraz, dziś, w tym momencie
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now, nowadays
|
currently, presently, at present
|
at this juncture
|
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bogaty
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rich
|
wealthy, affluent, well-off
|
|
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stworzyć
|
create
set up
|
establish
institute
|
|
|
przejawić
|
show
|
demonstrate
manifest
display
|
evince
|
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wymiar
|
size
|
scope
extent
dimensions
|
|
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zbyt
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too
|
excessively
overly
|
unduly
inordinately
disproportionately
|
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starać się
|
try to
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strive to
endeavor to
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|
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praktycznie
|
practically
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virtually
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|
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nienawiść, niechęć
|
hatred
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animosity
|
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niepotrzebny
|
unneeded
|
unnecessary
superfluous
redundant
|
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obyć się bez
|
do without
|
dispense with
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istotny
|
important, significant
|
essential
vital
crucial
|
|
|
wynikać z
|
result from
|
stem from
|
|
|
głęboki
|
deep
|
profound
|
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stanowi
|
is
|
constitutes
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